Care for the Poor and the Sick

                                          An Early Christian Vision of Compassion

     Care for the poor and the sick have been issues all societies have grappled with since the dawn of time. Whether African tribes in the Congo or cities in the ancient Mediterranean, societies have always had to manage social responsibilities to the disenfranchised and the afflicted among them. These are the issues explored in K.C. Richard's Early Christian Care for the Poor and Gary [1]Ferngren's Medicine & Health Care In Early Christianity. Both authors explore how early Christian compassion for the poor and sick was rooted in acute deontological and theological views of the cosmos and their place in it.

     Richardson begins his exploration of the issue of poverty in early Greco-Roman society by examining the practice of the norm of reciprocity. Referencing historian James C. Scott, Richardson argues that pagan societies embraced ethical principles that ensured the mutual flourishing of all, especially in times of food shortages. The norm of reciprocity requires that when a person gives to another in a time of need, the receiver has a duty to return the favor when they are requested to do so. This was not just a phenomenon unique to pagan cultures in the Greco-Roman world, but a practice of international proportions.

     As Richardson continues to lay the groundwork for his thesis, he argues that pagan cultures considered subsistence to be a fundamental right of each member of the community[2]. He cautions that this didn't necessarily result in an egalitarian ideal, as varying levels of wealth were considered to be a part of the natural order. However, the right to make a living was considered a fundamental right of every individual, as long as resources would allow.

     Richardson argues that colonialism had deleterious impacts on rural villages. The well-established taxation systems of colonial governments allowed them to efficiently exact taxes from the populations they dominated. This disrupted existing practices of mutual dependence and flourishing in rural communities. Communities were faced with additional pressures of producing for commercial markets that reduced traditional surpluses within the community. Thus, Richardson asserts:

Scott observed that when peasant villages come under the control of a colonial

government, the new regime disrupts the economic equilibrium created by the

communal ethic. Not only do subsistence-level farmers have less to share with

poor family members, and neighbors in times of need, but even more devastating,

the village patron no longer feels as he once did to offer assistance[3].

Although this was an unfortunate result of colonialism, Richardson asserts that villagers still continued to pressure the wealthy to provide assistance to others in times of need.

                                                 Jesus' Care For the Poor

     The Roman empire was an aristocratic empire that controlled the vast resources of an agrarian economy[4]. Many historians describe the relationship between the elite and peasant population as one replete with exploitation and conflict. Thus, Richardson asserts:

Following John Kautsky, these scholas identify Rome as an "aristocratic empire"

a state with a fundamentally agrarian economy, in which a very small rulers and

large land owner control the surplus produced by the peasant class, thus leaving

the vast majority of the public on the edge of subsistence[5].

However, precarious the situation of the peasant class, the elites enjoyed a life of conspicuous consumption and pleasure.

     Keenly aware of these inequities in his social context, Jesus targeted issues of debt and taxation that threatened the flourishing of the peasant class. Landowners used credit and escalating debt as a means of controlling and limiting the prosperity of farmers. One of the major parables that addresses the issue of debt in the agrarian economy is the parable of the unforgiving servant in Matthew 18: 23-35. The parable tells the story a King's slave who owes his master a great sum of money. The king decides to sell the slave, his wife and children to recover the thousand talents he is owed. When the slave begs for mercy, the King relents from his punishment and forgives the slave his enormous debt. Unfortunately, the slave who has just received mercy does not extend the same mercy to those who owe him money. The King hands him over to be tortured until he repays his debt.In the parable Jesus teaches the radical principle of mercy and the forgiveness of financial debts. Essentially, Jesus provides a theological solution, rooted in the Divine nature of a merciful God, to an acute socio-economic problem of the day.

     Jesus also addresses the plight of the poor in the parable of the unrighteous manager (Luke 16:1-9). In this parable, the dishonest manager of a rich man's estate is accused of squandering his master's wealth. Upon discovering this, the master decides to fire the dishonest manager for his mismanagement of resources. In a shrewd move, the manager renegotiates, reduces and settles the debts of all the those indebted to the rich man. Upon discovering the shrewd actions of the manger, the rich man decides to keep him on board. Although there is theological diversity regarding the meaning of parable, Jesus praises the graceful gestures of debt reduction and forgiveness. This affirms the theological wisdom of mercy when dealing with financial affairs.

     Richardson argues that Jesus permanently enshrined principles of debt forgiveness in the model prayer that he taught his disciples:

He said to them, "When you pray, say:

Father, hallowed be your name.
Your kingdom come.

Give us each day our daily bread.[c]
And forgive us our sins,
for we ourselves forgive everyone indebted to us.
And do not bring us to the time of trial. Luke 11:2-4, NRSV

For Richardson, Jesus was intentional in as Walter Brueggemann describes as "assaulting conventional epistemologies" of his time. Economic debt was a systemic problem in Galilee's agrarian economy fraught with inequities.

     Jesus' critique of the agrarian farming enterprise was considered to be subversive by many elites who were content with the status quo. The Romans chose to deal with this threat with the most efficient practice by which they silenced trouble makers, crucifixion. Thus, Richardson asserts:

Roman authorities ultimately put a stop to Jesus' subversive activities by executing

him by crucifixion in Jerusalem. Proponents of the political Jesus point out that

crucifixion was a political penalty, designed to suppress popular uprisings by means

of fear and intimidation[6].

Proponents of the political Jesus theory argue that Jesus' teachings and actions must be understood in the context of an aristocratic agrarian empire that had little appetite for criticism. Because Jesus criticized a broken and corrupt economic system, he was perceived by some as a seditious provincial[7].

     As Richardson continues to develop his argument, he expounds on the quintessential thesis of the book, Jesus' promotion of an alternative subsistence strategy for the age. This strategy was designed to address the shifting tides of change and prosperity under the rule of Herod Antipas. Economic flourishing under Antipas worsened the economic plight of the poor as they could no longer rely on traditional subsistent practices. Thus, Richardson asserts:

Jesus engaged in three different strategies to promote peasant subsistence:

(1) Jesus engaged in a conservative effort to encourage rural patrons to continue

to fulfill their traditional obligations to the poor in their communities. (2) Jesus

promoted self-help strategies among those at subsistence level, what Scott has

referred to as lower-class consumerism; (3) finally, Jesus promoted the innovative

measure of recruiting new patrons to fulfil the economic responsibility

abandoned by those who had traditionally played this role[8].

Richardson's analysis of Jesus' alternative subsistence strategy affirms Jesus' support of traditional practices of compassion and aid in rural communities: encouragement of individual responsibility and a Divine vision of mutual flourishing for agrarian communities.

                                  The Early Christians and the Healing Arts

     Gary Ferngren in his intriguing book Medicine and Health Care In Early Christianity explores the early church's care for the sick and infirmed in society. For Ferngren, this care was rooted in a fundamentally Jewish understanding of the Imago Dei. As humans reflected the nature of their Creator Yahweh, their lives were regarded with dignity and deserving of protection.

     Ferngren begins his exploration of early Christian care for the sick and infirmed with an exhaustive analysis of the way Christians understood illness in the early church. Contrary to popular belief in Post-Modern society, early Christians did not believe that most diseases were caused by demonic forces. Moreover, they did not reply on supernatural forces of healing but rather looked to herbal remedies and the experienced physicians of their time who were often trained in Grecian medical arts.

                                                             Greek Medicine

Ferngren argues that Greek medicine dates back to the time of Homer. Physicians, known as demiourgoi, specialized in the setting of broken bones. They were trained in their craft through traditional apprenticeships[9]. However, these early medical practitioners did not understand the nature of disease or its causes. Lacking a scientific understanding of disease, early physicians explained disease from the theoretical framework of balance and harmony in the natural world. Thus, Ferngren asserts:

Almaeon of Croton (c.500 B.C.) maintained that health represented a balance

of opposites as the dry, the wet, the hot, the cold, the sweet the bitter. Illness resulted from an imbalance of these contrary forces. Dietary therapy prescribed foods whose

characteristics help restore the body's balance...[10]

A closely related theory attributed to Empedocles (444-441 B.C.) asserted that the body contained four basic fluids (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile) which needed to stay in perfect balance for good health. According to Plato's Timaeus, disease was the direct result of the imbalance of these fluids.

     Embracing an understanding of the natural causation of disease, Greek medicine proliferated throughout the Mediterranean world. Its influence was ubiquitous in Greco-Roman society, supplanting previous folk and primitive understandings of illness.

                                                   Hebrew and Jewish Medicine

     Lacking an established medical tradition, the early Hebrews relied on folk remedies to treat illnesses. The prophetic writings of the Old Testament reveal an understanding of the binding wounds for healing (Isa 3.7), knowledge of how to bind fractures (Ezek. 30:21) and the use of healing substances. Although this reveals an elementary understanding of the healing arts among the early Hebrews, there is little evidence of a highly developed systematic approach to medicine, like the Greeks[11]. Richardson argues that unlike their Near eastern neighbors, the Hebrews did not develop an approach to healing that fused elements of magic, religion and empiricism into a cohesive medical strategy.

     In the Old Testament, the presence of disease was often attributed to moral and spiritual elements. Some texts attribute disease to Divine punishment by Yahweh, who executed judgement on transgressors and evil doers (I Sam 5:6, 2 Chron 26:20). However, the early Hebrews also acknowledged that some diseases were the result of natural causes[12].

     By the second century A.D. healing by natural means had become normative in the Greco-Roman world. Medicine, naturally based at the time, was embraced by a wide spectrum of societies. Thus, Richardson asserts:

While early Christians seem for the most part to have accepted Greek medicine

for the healing of disease, one finds nuances in the manner of its reception, as we

shall see by examining three different Christiaan apologists of the second and third

Centuries, Tertullian, Origen, and Tatian...

It is fair to say that there was a broad spectrum of theological diversity among some of the leading Christian apologists regarding the value of Greek medicine, revealing the tension between faith and science.

     Ferngren argues that the Hebrew understanding of the Imago-Dei was the theological framework that shaped the imagination of early Christians regarding care for the sick. According to Jewish law, Yahweh could not be represented in any physical form. However, the rational and moral image of Yahweh was beautifully exemplified in the human. Thus, Genesis asserts:

The God said let us make humankind in our own image, according to our likeness;

Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and

Over cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over creeping things

That creep upon the earth. In the image of God he created them, male and female

He created them.

Ferngren argues that the early Christian belief in the Imago Dei influenced their beliefs in the protection of human life. This belief comports well with Genesis 9:6 which asserts "Whoever, sheds the life of a human, by a human shall that person's blood be shed; for in his own image God made humankind.

                                                                    Synthesis

Together, Richardson and Ferngren paint a vivid tapestry of early Christian care for the poor and infirmed, exploring its acute deontological and theological foundations. Shaped by the Great- overarching narrative of the story of salvation in the holy scriptures and the teachings of Jesus, early Christians committed themselves to caring for the poor, disenfranchised and sick in society[13]. Richardson focuses on the threads of social justice and egalitarianism embedded in the provocative parables and teachings of Jesus. Ferngren adds to this rich theological tapestry in examining the origins of early Christian care for the sick in Greek and Hebrew medicine, highlighting these rich and often complex influences on the early Church. Ferngren's examination of the influence of the doctrine of the Imago Dei on the early Church is illuminating, as it reveals how this ancient Jewish doctrine shaped their understanding of the human dignity, worth and glory. As bearers of the Divine image, early Christians sought to honor and care for each other in extraordinary ways.

                                                Applications for Pastoral Ministry

                                                  In the Contemporary Church

     Richardson explores many intriguing aspects of early Christian care for the poor and disenfranchised in society. However, one of the most intriguing principals that he explores with contemporary applications is the norm of reciprocity. As Richardson describes, this practice in early, rural communities created deontological obligations among the rural poor to assist one another in times of need. The giver expected that the favor would be returned when they faced a time of need. This practice comports well with Jesus' teaching on giving in Luke 6:8:

Give, and it shall be given unto you; good measure, pressed down, and

shaken together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom. For

with the same measure that ye mete withal it shall be measured to you again.

As the norm of reciprocity, Jesus encourages his disciples to be generous and giving to those in need. Such giving sets into motion reciprocal divine forces that lead to the mutual flourishing of all in society.

     One year ago, when the tumultuous waves of the pandemic crashed upon on country's shores, my congregation, Remington UMC in Virginia launched a food pantry to help feed hundreds of people in our community who almost overnight lost their jobs. In response to this crisis, my leadership team established a mini-food pantry across the street from the church in our community garden. Since it was established, the pantry provides more than 200 lbs. in free food (nonperishable items) each week to families in need. To our astonishment we receive hundreds of pounds in unsolicited non-perishable donations each week to keep the pantry fully stocked. The ancient practice of the norm of reciprocity, thought by many scholars to be a universal phenomenon, is alive and well in Fauquier County Virginia. As clergy leaders, we need to continue to promote such important practices that serve the greater good of the community, especially in times of crisis.

     Ferngren addresses a number of historic issues with which the contemporary church still grapples. Misunderstanding early Christian views of disease, some Christian traditions primarily attribute sickness and disease to demonic influences. It is all too common to hear some Christian leaders prayerfully take authority over the demons of various disease, seeking to "cast them out" of the sick and infirmed. This highlights the complicated and controversial theological understandings regarding the causation of disease and its remedies. Christian leaders must be dedicated to the rigorous study and understanding of this issue, as there are competing paradigms within the contemporary Church. Ferngren's historical analysis provides Christian leaders with a broader understanding of how early Christians both embraced the wisdom of Greek natural therapeutics, holding in tension with ancient Hebrew views of the spiritual causes of disease as highlighted in the Old Testament.

     Ferngren's beautiful analysis of the doctrine of the Imago Dei, as a major narrative shaping early Christian care for the human has major implications for churches in contemporary society. As Christian leaders we must help our congregations to understanding this vital doctrine of our shared humanity, as bearers of the Divine image. Essentially, the doctrine of the Imago Dei teaches us that we are all made in the moral and rational image of the Triune God of creation. We bear his nature, which connects us in the broad tapestry of humanity. Such an understanding should inspire the Church to be advocates of affordable-universal healthcare for all in society. We live in a nation where the lack of access to critical medical services has deleterious effects on many, especially minority communities. This comports well with the Clementine homilies on the Imago Dei:

Ye are the image of the invisible God. Whence let not those who would be

pious say that idols are images of God, and therefore that it is right to worship

them. For the image of God is man. He who wishes to be pious towards God

does good to man, because the body of man bears the image of God. But all do

not year bear his likeness, but the pure mind of the good soul does...therefore

it behooves you to give honor to the image of God which is man[14].

Clementine identifies both deontological and theological reasons to care for the poor and the sick in society. When we care for each other, we honor the image of God within all of us.

     Care for the poor and the sick have been issues all societies have grappled with since the dawn of time. Jesus famously admitted "the poor you will always have with you" (Matthew 26:11). Societies have always had to manage social responsibilities to the disenfranchised and the afflicted among them. These are the issues explored in K.C. Richard's Early Christian Care for the Poor and Gary [15]Ferngren's Medicine & Health Care In Early Christianity. Both authors explore how early Christian compassion for the poor and sick was rooted in acute deontological and theological views of the cosmos and their place in it.

                                                                    Bibliography

Early Christian Care for the Poor: (Cascades Books, 2018), 12, 19, 148

Medicine and Healthcare in Early Christianity: (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 18,23,99

[1] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 12

[2] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 13

[3] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 20

[4] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 26

[5] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 26

[6] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 28

[7] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 29

[8] [8] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 38

[9] Medicine and Healthcare In Early Christianity, 18

[10] Medicine and Healthcare In Early Christianity, 18

[11] Medicine and Healthcare In Early Christianity, 23

[12] Medicine and Healthcare In Early Christianity, 23

[13] Dr. Kavin Rowe, Christianity's Surprise Lectures/Duke University, April 6, 2021

[14] Medicine and Healthcare In Early Christianity, 99

[15] Richardson, Early Christian Care for the Poor, pg. 12 your text here...